Emergence and Associated Risk Factors of Vector Borne West Nile Virus Infection in Ilorin, Nigeria
,
Abstract
Background: West Nile Virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne viral pathogen that is the causative agent of West Nile fever and encephalitis. Diagnostic tools for WNV infection in Nigeria are not well established hence the current prevalence rate of WNV infection in Nigeria is unknown. We aimed to establish the serological prevalence of WNV infection in febrile patients in Ilorin, Nigeria in 2016, and to assess the risk factors associated with the acquisition of the virus.
Methods: This was a cross-sectional study involving the screening of subjects presenting with febrile illnesses. While specific IgM ELISA was used to determine the seroprevalence, a closed-ended questionnaire was used to ascertain the risk factors associated with this viral infection.
Results: Fifteen (7.5%) of the respondents were positive for WNV infection. Subjects living in areas in close proximity to trees and bushes (P= 0.011) and stagnant water (P= 0.001) were at a higher risk of having WNV infection. Other risk factors associated with WNV among the respondents include the none use of insecticide (P= 0.001), sitting out at night (P= 0.044), HIV positivity (P= 0.003) and having an organ transplant (P= 0.002).
Conclusion: This study clearly shows a considerable WNV infection in Ilorin, with the presence of factors that can promulgate an outbreak, hence a need for further surveillance in the study area.
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4. Lanciotti RS, Roehrig JT, Deubel V, Smith J, Parker M, Steele K, Crise B, Volpe KE (1999) Origin of the West Nile Virus Re-sponsible for an Outbreak of Encephali-tis in the Northeastern United States. Sci-ence. 286(5448): 2333–2337.
5. Kilpatrick AM (2011) Globalization, land use, and the invasion of West Nile virus. Science. 334: 323–327.
6. Friebe P, Harris E (2010) Interplay of RNA elements in the dengue virus 5= and 3= ends required for viral RNA replication. J Virol. 84: 6103–6118.
7. May FJ, Davis CT, Tesh RB, Barrett ADT (2011) Phylogeography of West Nile vi-rus: from the cradle of evolution in Afri-ca to Eurasia, Australia, and the Ameri-cas. J Virol. 85(6): 2964–2974.
8. Bondre VP, Jadi RS, Mishra AC, Yergol-kar PN, Arankalle VA (2007) West Nile virus isolates from India: evidence for a distinct genetic lineage. J Gen Virol. 88 (3): 875–884.
9. Pattan SR, Dighe NS, Bhawar SB, Gaware VM, Hole MB, Musmade DS, Bhosale MS (2009) West Nile Fever: An Over-view. J Biomed Sci Res. 1(1): 33–48.
10. Styer LM, Lim PY, Louie KL, Albright RG, Kramer LD, Bernard KA (2011) Mosquito saliva causes enhancement of
West Nile virus infection in mice. J Vi-rol. 85: 1517–1527.
11. Centre for Food Security and Public health (CFSPH) (2009) West Nile Virus Infection. Available at: www.cfsph.iastate.edu/IICAB/.
12. Ciota AT, Kramer LD (2013) Vector-Virus Interactions and Transmission Dy-namics of West Nile Virus. Viruses. 5 (12): 3021–3047.
13. Appler KK, Brown AN, Stewart BS, Behr MJ, Demarest VL, Wong SJ, Bernard KA (2010) Persistence of West Nile vi-rus in the central nervous system and periphery of mice. PLoS One. 5: 10649.
14. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) “West Nile Virus: what you need to know” 2012, fact sheet.www.cdc.gov
15. Watson JT, Pertel PE, Jones RC, Siston AM, Paul WS, Austin CC, Gerber SI (2004) Clinical characteristics and func-tional outcomes of West Nile fever. Ann Intern Med. 141: 360–365.
16. Campbell GL, Marfin AA, Lanciotti RS, Gubler DJ (2002) West Nile virus. Lan-cet Infect Dis. 2: 519–529.
17. Murray K, Baraniuk S, Resnick M, Ara-fat R, Kilborn C, Cain K, Shallenberger R, York TL, Martinez D, Hellums JS, Hellums D, Malkoff M, Elgawley N, Mcneely W, Khuwaja SA, Tesh RB (2006) Risk factors for encephalitis and death from West Nile virus infection. Epidemiol Infect. 134(6): 1325–1332.
18. Jean CM, Honarmand S, Louie JK, Gla-ser CA (2007) Risk factors for West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease, Cali-fornia, 2005. Emerg Infect Dis. 13(12): 1918–1920.
19. Cardenas VM, Jaime J, Ford PB, Gonza-lez FJ, Carrillo I, Gallegos JE, Watts DM (2011) Yard flooding by irrigation ca-nals increased the risk of West Nile dis-ease in El Paso, Texas. Ann Epidemiol. 21: 922–929.
20. Nolan MS, Zangeneh A, Khuwaja SA, Martinez D, Rossmann SN, Cardenas V, Murray KO (2012) Proximity of resi-dence to bodies of water and risk for west nilevirus infection: a case-control study in Houston, Texas. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2012: 159578.
21. Baba MM, Logue CH, Oderinde B, Ab-dulmaleek H, Williams J, Lewis J, Laws TR, Hewson R, Marcello A, D'Agaro P (2013) Evidence of arbovirus coinfec-tion in suspected febrile malaria and ty-phoid patients in Nigeria. J Infect Dev Ctries 7(1): 051–059.
22. Motayo BO, Onoja BA, Faneye AO, Ad-eniji JA (2016) Seasonal abundance and molecular identification of West Nile vi-rus vectors, Culex pipens and Culex quin-quefasciatus (diptera: culicidae) in Abe-okuta, South-West, Nigeria. Afri Health Sci. 16(1): 135–140.
23. Ahmed SBY, Hamedelnil YF (2015) Serodetection of West Nile Virus among febrile non malarial patients at Wad Mad-eni Teaching Hospital. Intern J Adv Sci Tech Res. 5(3): 307–341.
24. Olawepo RA, Okedare EA (2006) Men’s Attitudes Towards Family Planning in a Traditional Urban Centre: An Example from Ilorin, Nigeria. J Social Sci. 13(2): 83–90.
25. Kolawole OM, Idakwo AI, Ige O, Owu-da J, Anibijuwon I (2015) Prevalence of Hospital Acquired Infections in the In-tensive Care Unit of University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital, Ilorin Nigeria. Su-dan J Med Sci. 10(2): 59–66.
26. Aluko O (2012) Impact of poverty on housing condition in Nigeria: A case study of Mushin Local Government Ar-ea of Lagos State. J Afr Stud Dev. 4(3): 81–89.
27. Mease LE, Coldren RL, Musila LA, Prosser T, Ogolla F, Ofula VO, Schoepp RJ, Rossi CA, Adungo N (2011) Sero-prevalence and distribution of arboviral infections among rural Kenyan adults: A
cross-sectional study. Virol J. 8: 371.
28. Sutherland LJ, Cash AA, Huang YS, Sang RC, Malhotra I, Moormann AM, King CL, Weaver SC, King CH, LaBeaud AD (2011) Serologic Evidence of Arboviral Infections among Humans in Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 85(1): 158–161.
29. Nur YA, Groen J, Heuvelmans H, Tuyn-man W, Copra C (1999) An outbreak of West Nile fever among migrants in Kis-angani, Democratic Republic of Congo. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 61: 885–888.
30. Baba MM, Saron M, Adeniji JA (2006) The seasonal effect of West Nile Virus in semi-arid zone, Nigeria. Acad J. 1: 31–38.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Pre-vention CDC. West Nile Virus (WNV) Fact Sheet 2015, Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/westnile/resources/pdfs/wnvfactsheet_508.pdf
32. Ruiz MO, Tedesco C, McTighe TJ, Aus-tin C, Kitron U (2004) Environmental and social determinants of human risk during a West Nile virus outbreak in the greater Chicago area, 2002. Intern J Health Geography. 3: 8.
33. Montgomery RR, Murray KO (2015) Risk factors for West Nile virus Infec-tion and Disease in Populations and In-dividuals. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 13(3): 317–325.
34. Han LL, Popovici F, Alexander Jr JP, Laurentia V, Tengelsen LA, Cernescu C (1996) Risk factors for West Nile virus infection and meningoencephalitis, Ro-mania. J Infect Dis. 179: 230–233.
35. Ordinioha B (2012) The use and misuse of mass distributed free insecticide-treated bed nets in a semi-urban com-munity in Rivers State, Nigeria. Ann Afri Med. 11: 163–168. 36. Rose RI (2001) Pesticides and public health: integrated methods of mosquito management. Emerg Infect Dis. 7: 17–23.
37. Meyer TE, Bull LM, Cain, HK, Pascua RF, Travassos da RA, Gutierrez CR (2007) West Nile virus infection among the homeless, Houston, Texas. Emerg Infect Dis. 13: 1500–1503. 38. Nash D, Mostashari F, Fine A, Miller J, O'Leary D, Murray K, Huang A, Ros-enberg A, Greenberg A, Sherman M, Wong S, Layton M (2001) The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999. N Engl J Med. 344: 1807–1814.
39. Gray TJ, Webb CE (2014) A review of the epidemiological and clinical aspects of West Nile virus. Int J Gen Med. 7: 193–203
2. Colpitts TM, Conway MJ, Montgomery RR, Fikrig E (2012) West Nile Virus: Bi-ology, Transmission, and Human Infec-tion. Clin Microbiol. 25(4): 635–648.
3. Valiakos G, Athanasiou LV, Touloudi A, Papatsiros V, Spyrou V, Petrovska L, Bil-linis C (2013) West Nile Virus: Basic Principles, ReplicationMechanism, Im-mune Response andImportant Genetic De-terminants of Virulence. In: Immunology and Microbiology "Viral Replication", book edited by German Rosas-Acosta, 51-1055-2.
4. Lanciotti RS, Roehrig JT, Deubel V, Smith J, Parker M, Steele K, Crise B, Volpe KE (1999) Origin of the West Nile Virus Re-sponsible for an Outbreak of Encephali-tis in the Northeastern United States. Sci-ence. 286(5448): 2333–2337.
5. Kilpatrick AM (2011) Globalization, land use, and the invasion of West Nile virus. Science. 334: 323–327.
6. Friebe P, Harris E (2010) Interplay of RNA elements in the dengue virus 5= and 3= ends required for viral RNA replication. J Virol. 84: 6103–6118.
7. May FJ, Davis CT, Tesh RB, Barrett ADT (2011) Phylogeography of West Nile vi-rus: from the cradle of evolution in Afri-ca to Eurasia, Australia, and the Ameri-cas. J Virol. 85(6): 2964–2974.
8. Bondre VP, Jadi RS, Mishra AC, Yergol-kar PN, Arankalle VA (2007) West Nile virus isolates from India: evidence for a distinct genetic lineage. J Gen Virol. 88 (3): 875–884.
9. Pattan SR, Dighe NS, Bhawar SB, Gaware VM, Hole MB, Musmade DS, Bhosale MS (2009) West Nile Fever: An Over-view. J Biomed Sci Res. 1(1): 33–48.
10. Styer LM, Lim PY, Louie KL, Albright RG, Kramer LD, Bernard KA (2011) Mosquito saliva causes enhancement of
West Nile virus infection in mice. J Vi-rol. 85: 1517–1527.
11. Centre for Food Security and Public health (CFSPH) (2009) West Nile Virus Infection. Available at: www.cfsph.iastate.edu/IICAB/.
12. Ciota AT, Kramer LD (2013) Vector-Virus Interactions and Transmission Dy-namics of West Nile Virus. Viruses. 5 (12): 3021–3047.
13. Appler KK, Brown AN, Stewart BS, Behr MJ, Demarest VL, Wong SJ, Bernard KA (2010) Persistence of West Nile vi-rus in the central nervous system and periphery of mice. PLoS One. 5: 10649.
14. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) “West Nile Virus: what you need to know” 2012, fact sheet.www.cdc.gov
15. Watson JT, Pertel PE, Jones RC, Siston AM, Paul WS, Austin CC, Gerber SI (2004) Clinical characteristics and func-tional outcomes of West Nile fever. Ann Intern Med. 141: 360–365.
16. Campbell GL, Marfin AA, Lanciotti RS, Gubler DJ (2002) West Nile virus. Lan-cet Infect Dis. 2: 519–529.
17. Murray K, Baraniuk S, Resnick M, Ara-fat R, Kilborn C, Cain K, Shallenberger R, York TL, Martinez D, Hellums JS, Hellums D, Malkoff M, Elgawley N, Mcneely W, Khuwaja SA, Tesh RB (2006) Risk factors for encephalitis and death from West Nile virus infection. Epidemiol Infect. 134(6): 1325–1332.
18. Jean CM, Honarmand S, Louie JK, Gla-ser CA (2007) Risk factors for West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease, Cali-fornia, 2005. Emerg Infect Dis. 13(12): 1918–1920.
19. Cardenas VM, Jaime J, Ford PB, Gonza-lez FJ, Carrillo I, Gallegos JE, Watts DM (2011) Yard flooding by irrigation ca-nals increased the risk of West Nile dis-ease in El Paso, Texas. Ann Epidemiol. 21: 922–929.
20. Nolan MS, Zangeneh A, Khuwaja SA, Martinez D, Rossmann SN, Cardenas V, Murray KO (2012) Proximity of resi-dence to bodies of water and risk for west nilevirus infection: a case-control study in Houston, Texas. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2012: 159578.
21. Baba MM, Logue CH, Oderinde B, Ab-dulmaleek H, Williams J, Lewis J, Laws TR, Hewson R, Marcello A, D'Agaro P (2013) Evidence of arbovirus coinfec-tion in suspected febrile malaria and ty-phoid patients in Nigeria. J Infect Dev Ctries 7(1): 051–059.
22. Motayo BO, Onoja BA, Faneye AO, Ad-eniji JA (2016) Seasonal abundance and molecular identification of West Nile vi-rus vectors, Culex pipens and Culex quin-quefasciatus (diptera: culicidae) in Abe-okuta, South-West, Nigeria. Afri Health Sci. 16(1): 135–140.
23. Ahmed SBY, Hamedelnil YF (2015) Serodetection of West Nile Virus among febrile non malarial patients at Wad Mad-eni Teaching Hospital. Intern J Adv Sci Tech Res. 5(3): 307–341.
24. Olawepo RA, Okedare EA (2006) Men’s Attitudes Towards Family Planning in a Traditional Urban Centre: An Example from Ilorin, Nigeria. J Social Sci. 13(2): 83–90.
25. Kolawole OM, Idakwo AI, Ige O, Owu-da J, Anibijuwon I (2015) Prevalence of Hospital Acquired Infections in the In-tensive Care Unit of University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital, Ilorin Nigeria. Su-dan J Med Sci. 10(2): 59–66.
26. Aluko O (2012) Impact of poverty on housing condition in Nigeria: A case study of Mushin Local Government Ar-ea of Lagos State. J Afr Stud Dev. 4(3): 81–89.
27. Mease LE, Coldren RL, Musila LA, Prosser T, Ogolla F, Ofula VO, Schoepp RJ, Rossi CA, Adungo N (2011) Sero-prevalence and distribution of arboviral infections among rural Kenyan adults: A
cross-sectional study. Virol J. 8: 371.
28. Sutherland LJ, Cash AA, Huang YS, Sang RC, Malhotra I, Moormann AM, King CL, Weaver SC, King CH, LaBeaud AD (2011) Serologic Evidence of Arboviral Infections among Humans in Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 85(1): 158–161.
29. Nur YA, Groen J, Heuvelmans H, Tuyn-man W, Copra C (1999) An outbreak of West Nile fever among migrants in Kis-angani, Democratic Republic of Congo. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 61: 885–888.
30. Baba MM, Saron M, Adeniji JA (2006) The seasonal effect of West Nile Virus in semi-arid zone, Nigeria. Acad J. 1: 31–38.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Pre-vention CDC. West Nile Virus (WNV) Fact Sheet 2015, Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/westnile/resources/pdfs/wnvfactsheet_508.pdf
32. Ruiz MO, Tedesco C, McTighe TJ, Aus-tin C, Kitron U (2004) Environmental and social determinants of human risk during a West Nile virus outbreak in the greater Chicago area, 2002. Intern J Health Geography. 3: 8.
33. Montgomery RR, Murray KO (2015) Risk factors for West Nile virus Infec-tion and Disease in Populations and In-dividuals. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 13(3): 317–325.
34. Han LL, Popovici F, Alexander Jr JP, Laurentia V, Tengelsen LA, Cernescu C (1996) Risk factors for West Nile virus infection and meningoencephalitis, Ro-mania. J Infect Dis. 179: 230–233.
35. Ordinioha B (2012) The use and misuse of mass distributed free insecticide-treated bed nets in a semi-urban com-munity in Rivers State, Nigeria. Ann Afri Med. 11: 163–168. 36. Rose RI (2001) Pesticides and public health: integrated methods of mosquito management. Emerg Infect Dis. 7: 17–23.
37. Meyer TE, Bull LM, Cain, HK, Pascua RF, Travassos da RA, Gutierrez CR (2007) West Nile virus infection among the homeless, Houston, Texas. Emerg Infect Dis. 13: 1500–1503. 38. Nash D, Mostashari F, Fine A, Miller J, O'Leary D, Murray K, Huang A, Ros-enberg A, Greenberg A, Sherman M, Wong S, Layton M (2001) The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999. N Engl J Med. 344: 1807–1814.
39. Gray TJ, Webb CE (2014) A review of the epidemiological and clinical aspects of West Nile virus. Int J Gen Med. 7: 193–203
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| Issue | Vol 12 No 4 (2018) | |
| Section | Original Article | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/jad.v12i4.352 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Mosquito Vector-borne West Nile virus Nigeria Prevalence | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Kolawole OM, Adelaiye G, Ogah JI. Emergence and Associated Risk Factors of Vector Borne West Nile Virus Infection in Ilorin, Nigeria. J Arthropod Borne Dis. 2018;12(4):341-350.
