Insecticidal Activity of Salvia officinalis, Pistacia vera and Eucalyptus sp. Extracts Against Phlebotomus papatasi: A Potential Plant-Based Approach for Vector Control
Abstract
Background: Insecticides are essential for controlling Leishmania vectors, but their extensive use leads to adverse environmental effects, particularly on non-target species. Given the health challenges associated with synthetic insecticides and the dire need for safe and sustainable alternatives, plant-based insecticides offer a promising solution. This study explores the insecticidal potential of Salvia officinalis, Pistacia vera and Eucalyptus sp. as environmentally friendly alternatives for controlling Phlebotomus papatasi.
Methods: Methanolic extracts of S. officinalis, P. vera and Eucalyptus sp. were prepared using the maceration method. The extracts were analyzed using titration methods for bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins and antioxidant properties. Susceptibility tests on Ph. papatasi were performed using WHO standard kits, with median lethal time (LT₅₀) and median lethal dose (LD₅₀) values calculated by probit analysis.
Results: Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of flavonoids in S. officinalis and Eucalyptus sp. None of the extracts contained alkaloids, but all contained tannins. Pistacia vera was the only extract containing saponins. The LD₅₀ values after 24 hrs for S. officinalis, Eucalyptus sp. and P. vera were 0.156, 0.576 and 0.41 μg/ml, respectively. The LT50 values for S. officinalis, Eucalyptus sp. and P. vera at 1.6 μg/mL were 11.9, 12.5 and 14.4 hrs, respectively.
Conclusion: Plant-derived insecticides are gaining attention due to their potential to mitigate the environmental and health risks posed by synthetic insecticides. The findings suggest that S. officinalis, P. vera and Eucalyptus sp. extracts may serve as effective biopesticides, contributing to integrated vector management strategies for leishmaniasis control.
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3. Sedaghat M, Sanei Dehkordi A, Abai M, Khanavi M, Mohtarami F, Salim Abadi Y, Rafi F, Vatandoost H (2011) Larvicid-al activity of essential oils of Apiaceae plants against malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi. J Arthropod Borne Dis. 5(2): 51−59.
4. Oshaghi M, Ghalandari R, Vatandoost H, Shayeghi M, Kamali-Nejad M, Tourabi-Khaledi H (2003) Repellent effect of ex-tracts and essential oils of Citrus limon (Rutaceae) and Melissa officinalis (Labi-atae) against main malaria vector, Anoph-eles stephensi (Diptera: Culicidae). Iran J Public Health. 32(4): 47−52.
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7. Hosseinzadeh H, Tabassi SAS, Moghadam NM, Rashedinia M, Mehri S (2012) Anti-oxidant activity of Pistacia vera fruits, leaves and gum extracts. Iran J Pharm Res. 11(3): 879−887.
8. Elansary HO, Salem MZ, Ashmawy NA, Yessoufou K, El-Settawy AA (2017) In vitro antibacterial, antifungal and antioxi-dant activities of Eucalyptus sp. leaf extracts
related to phenolic composition. Nat Prod Res. 31(24): 2927−2930.
9. Beckett PH, Gordon E (1966) Land use and settlement round Kerman in southern Iran. Geogr J. 132(4): 476-490.
10. Chaves JO, De Souza MC, Da Silva LC, Lachos-Perez D, Torres-Mayanga PC, Ma¬chado APdF (2020) Extraction of flavo¬noids from natural sources using modern techniques. Front Chemi. 8: 507887.
11. Kopp T, Abdel-Tawab M, Mizaikoff B (2020) Extracting and analyzing pyrroliz-idine alkaloids in medicinal plants: a re-view. Toxin. 12(5): 320.
12. Mal S, Pal D (2020) Tannins and poly-phenols extracted from natural plants and their versatile application. Bioactive Natu¬ral Products for Pharmaceutical Applica¬tions.
13. Brindhadevi K, Chidambaram M, Kavitha R, Govindaraj R, Chinnathambi A, Salmen SH (2023) Extraction, antioxidant and an¬ticancer activity of saponins extracted from Curcuma angustifolia. Appl Nanosci. 13 (3): 2063−2071.
14. Cardoso-Ugarte GA, Sosa-Morales ME (2022) Essential oils from herbs and spic-es as natural antioxidants: diversity of prom¬ising food applications in the past decade. Food Rev Int. 38: 403−433.
15. Iwuji SC, Ogbonna CV, Iwu CI, Okafor WC, Chibuike EC (2021) Comparative ef¬fects of solvents on the herbal extrac-tion of antidiabetic Phytochemicals. J Pharm Res Int. 33: 149−159.
16. Azarm A, Vatandoost H, Koosha M, Akhavan AA, Mohebali M, Saeidi Z, Dehghan A, Oshaghi MA (2023) Suscep-tibility of Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) against DDT and Deltame-thrin in an endemic focus of zoonotic cu-taneous leishmaniasis in Iran. J Arthro-pod-Borne Dis. 17(4): 333−343.
17. WHO (2022) Manual for monitoring in-sec¬ticide resistance in mosquito vectors and selecting appropriate interventions. World Health Organization, Geneva.
18. WHO (2016) Test procedures for insecti-cide resistance monitoring in malaria vec-tor mosquitoes. World Health Organiza-tion, Geneva.
19. Theodor O, Mesghali A (1964) On the Phlebotominae of Iran. J Med Entomol. 1(3): 285−300.
20. Rajput S, Sharma P, Malviya R (2023) Utilization of herbal components as in¬sec-ticidal and repellent effects. Recent Adv Food Nutr Agric. 14(3): 144−154.
21. Mandalari G, Barreca D, Gervasi T, Rous¬sell MA, Klein B, Feeney MJ (2021) Pis¬tachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.): production, nutrients, bioactives and novel health ef¬fects. Plants. 11(1): 18.
22. Nakhaee MR, Pakravan F, Nakhaee N (2013) Prevalence of use of anabolic ster-oids by bodybuilders using three methods in a city of Iran. Addic Health. 5(3−4): 77−82.
23. Zerkani H, Kharchoufa L, Tagnaout I, Fak¬chich J, Bouhrim M, Amalich S (2022) Chemical composition and bioinsecticidal effects of Thymus zygis L., Salvia offici¬nalis L. and Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. es¬sential oils on medfly Ceratitis capitata and tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta. Plants. 11(22): 3084.
24. Mouna M, Khadra B, Assia B, Salim L (2021) Insecticidal effect of two aqueous extracts from the leaves of Salvia offici-nalis and Eucalyptus camaldulensis against Aphis fabae. J Entomol Res. 45(2): 268−279.
25. Moullamri M, Rharrabe K, Annaz H, Lag¬laoui A, Alibrando F, Cacciola F (2024) Salvia officinalis, Lavandula angustifolia, and Mentha pulegium essential oils: in¬sec¬ticidal activities and feeding deter¬rence against Plodia interpunctella (Lepidop¬tera: Pyralidae). J Essent Oil-Bear. 27(1): 16−33.
26. Abdellaoui K, Miladi M, Boughattas I, Acheuk F, Chaira N, Halima-Kamel MB (2017) Chemical composition, toxicity and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity of Salvia officinalis essential oils against Tri¬bolium confusum. J Entomol Zool Stud. 5(4): 1761−1768.
27. Bedini S, Guarino S, Echeverria MC, Flamini G, Ascrizzi R, Loni A (2020) Allium sa¬tivum, Rosmarinus officinalis and Salvia officinalis essential oils: A spiced shield against blowflies. Insects. 11(3): 143.
28. Laborda R, Manzano I, Gamon M, Gavid¬ia I, Perez-Bermudez P, Boluda R (2013) Effects of Rosmarinus officinalis and Sal¬via officinalis essential oils on Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae). Ind Crops Prod. 48: 106−110.
29. Maciel M, Morais S, Bevilaqua C, Silva R, Barros R, Sousa R (2010) Chemical composition of Eucalyptus sp. essential oils and their insecticidal effects on Lutzom¬yia longipalpis. Vet Parasitol. 167(1): 1−7.
30. Kumar P, Mishra S, Malik A, Satya S (2012) Compositional analysis and insec-ticidal activity of Eucalyptus globulus (fam¬ily: Myrtaceae) essential oil against housefly (Musca domestica). Acta Trop. 122(2): 212−218.
31. Toloza AC, Zygadlo J, Cueto GM, Biurrun F, Zerba E, Picollo MI (2006) Fumigant and repellent properties of essential oils and component compounds against per¬me¬thrin-resistant Pediculus humanus capitis (Anoplura: Pediculidae) from Argentina. J Med Entomol. 43(5): 889−895.
32. Coelho CAA, de Souza NA, Feder MD, Silva CEd, Garcia EdS, Azambuja P (2006) Effects of azadirachtin on the develop¬ment and mortality of Lutzomyia. longipalpis larvae (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotom¬inae). J Med Entomol. 43(2): 262−266.
2. Giunti G, Benelli G, Palmeri V, Laudani F, Ricupero M, Ricciardi R (2022) Non-target effects of essential oil-based bi-opesticides for crop protection: Impact on natural enemies, pollinators and soil in¬ver-tebrates. BioControl. 176: 105071.
3. Sedaghat M, Sanei Dehkordi A, Abai M, Khanavi M, Mohtarami F, Salim Abadi Y, Rafi F, Vatandoost H (2011) Larvicid-al activity of essential oils of Apiaceae plants against malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi. J Arthropod Borne Dis. 5(2): 51−59.
4. Oshaghi M, Ghalandari R, Vatandoost H, Shayeghi M, Kamali-Nejad M, Tourabi-Khaledi H (2003) Repellent effect of ex-tracts and essential oils of Citrus limon (Rutaceae) and Melissa officinalis (Labi-atae) against main malaria vector, Anoph-eles stephensi (Diptera: Culicidae). Iran J Public Health. 32(4): 47−52.
5. Pugliese M, Gaglio G, Passantino A, Bri-anti E, Napoli E (2021) Natural products against sand fly vectors of leishmaniosis: a systematic review. Vet Sci. 8(8): 150.
6. Miraj S, Kiani S (2016) A review study of therapeutic effects of Salvia officinalis L. Pharm Lett. 8(6): 299−303.
7. Hosseinzadeh H, Tabassi SAS, Moghadam NM, Rashedinia M, Mehri S (2012) Anti-oxidant activity of Pistacia vera fruits, leaves and gum extracts. Iran J Pharm Res. 11(3): 879−887.
8. Elansary HO, Salem MZ, Ashmawy NA, Yessoufou K, El-Settawy AA (2017) In vitro antibacterial, antifungal and antioxi-dant activities of Eucalyptus sp. leaf extracts
related to phenolic composition. Nat Prod Res. 31(24): 2927−2930.
9. Beckett PH, Gordon E (1966) Land use and settlement round Kerman in southern Iran. Geogr J. 132(4): 476-490.
10. Chaves JO, De Souza MC, Da Silva LC, Lachos-Perez D, Torres-Mayanga PC, Ma¬chado APdF (2020) Extraction of flavo¬noids from natural sources using modern techniques. Front Chemi. 8: 507887.
11. Kopp T, Abdel-Tawab M, Mizaikoff B (2020) Extracting and analyzing pyrroliz-idine alkaloids in medicinal plants: a re-view. Toxin. 12(5): 320.
12. Mal S, Pal D (2020) Tannins and poly-phenols extracted from natural plants and their versatile application. Bioactive Natu¬ral Products for Pharmaceutical Applica¬tions.
13. Brindhadevi K, Chidambaram M, Kavitha R, Govindaraj R, Chinnathambi A, Salmen SH (2023) Extraction, antioxidant and an¬ticancer activity of saponins extracted from Curcuma angustifolia. Appl Nanosci. 13 (3): 2063−2071.
14. Cardoso-Ugarte GA, Sosa-Morales ME (2022) Essential oils from herbs and spic-es as natural antioxidants: diversity of prom¬ising food applications in the past decade. Food Rev Int. 38: 403−433.
15. Iwuji SC, Ogbonna CV, Iwu CI, Okafor WC, Chibuike EC (2021) Comparative ef¬fects of solvents on the herbal extrac-tion of antidiabetic Phytochemicals. J Pharm Res Int. 33: 149−159.
16. Azarm A, Vatandoost H, Koosha M, Akhavan AA, Mohebali M, Saeidi Z, Dehghan A, Oshaghi MA (2023) Suscep-tibility of Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) against DDT and Deltame-thrin in an endemic focus of zoonotic cu-taneous leishmaniasis in Iran. J Arthro-pod-Borne Dis. 17(4): 333−343.
17. WHO (2022) Manual for monitoring in-sec¬ticide resistance in mosquito vectors and selecting appropriate interventions. World Health Organization, Geneva.
18. WHO (2016) Test procedures for insecti-cide resistance monitoring in malaria vec-tor mosquitoes. World Health Organiza-tion, Geneva.
19. Theodor O, Mesghali A (1964) On the Phlebotominae of Iran. J Med Entomol. 1(3): 285−300.
20. Rajput S, Sharma P, Malviya R (2023) Utilization of herbal components as in¬sec-ticidal and repellent effects. Recent Adv Food Nutr Agric. 14(3): 144−154.
21. Mandalari G, Barreca D, Gervasi T, Rous¬sell MA, Klein B, Feeney MJ (2021) Pis¬tachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.): production, nutrients, bioactives and novel health ef¬fects. Plants. 11(1): 18.
22. Nakhaee MR, Pakravan F, Nakhaee N (2013) Prevalence of use of anabolic ster-oids by bodybuilders using three methods in a city of Iran. Addic Health. 5(3−4): 77−82.
23. Zerkani H, Kharchoufa L, Tagnaout I, Fak¬chich J, Bouhrim M, Amalich S (2022) Chemical composition and bioinsecticidal effects of Thymus zygis L., Salvia offici¬nalis L. and Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. es¬sential oils on medfly Ceratitis capitata and tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta. Plants. 11(22): 3084.
24. Mouna M, Khadra B, Assia B, Salim L (2021) Insecticidal effect of two aqueous extracts from the leaves of Salvia offici-nalis and Eucalyptus camaldulensis against Aphis fabae. J Entomol Res. 45(2): 268−279.
25. Moullamri M, Rharrabe K, Annaz H, Lag¬laoui A, Alibrando F, Cacciola F (2024) Salvia officinalis, Lavandula angustifolia, and Mentha pulegium essential oils: in¬sec¬ticidal activities and feeding deter¬rence against Plodia interpunctella (Lepidop¬tera: Pyralidae). J Essent Oil-Bear. 27(1): 16−33.
26. Abdellaoui K, Miladi M, Boughattas I, Acheuk F, Chaira N, Halima-Kamel MB (2017) Chemical composition, toxicity and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity of Salvia officinalis essential oils against Tri¬bolium confusum. J Entomol Zool Stud. 5(4): 1761−1768.
27. Bedini S, Guarino S, Echeverria MC, Flamini G, Ascrizzi R, Loni A (2020) Allium sa¬tivum, Rosmarinus officinalis and Salvia officinalis essential oils: A spiced shield against blowflies. Insects. 11(3): 143.
28. Laborda R, Manzano I, Gamon M, Gavid¬ia I, Perez-Bermudez P, Boluda R (2013) Effects of Rosmarinus officinalis and Sal¬via officinalis essential oils on Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae). Ind Crops Prod. 48: 106−110.
29. Maciel M, Morais S, Bevilaqua C, Silva R, Barros R, Sousa R (2010) Chemical composition of Eucalyptus sp. essential oils and their insecticidal effects on Lutzom¬yia longipalpis. Vet Parasitol. 167(1): 1−7.
30. Kumar P, Mishra S, Malik A, Satya S (2012) Compositional analysis and insec-ticidal activity of Eucalyptus globulus (fam¬ily: Myrtaceae) essential oil against housefly (Musca domestica). Acta Trop. 122(2): 212−218.
31. Toloza AC, Zygadlo J, Cueto GM, Biurrun F, Zerba E, Picollo MI (2006) Fumigant and repellent properties of essential oils and component compounds against per¬me¬thrin-resistant Pediculus humanus capitis (Anoplura: Pediculidae) from Argentina. J Med Entomol. 43(5): 889−895.
32. Coelho CAA, de Souza NA, Feder MD, Silva CEd, Garcia EdS, Azambuja P (2006) Effects of azadirachtin on the develop¬ment and mortality of Lutzomyia. longipalpis larvae (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotom¬inae). J Med Entomol. 43(2): 262−266.
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How to Cite
1.
Asadi A, Dayer MS, Azarm A. Insecticidal Activity of Salvia officinalis, Pistacia vera and Eucalyptus sp. Extracts Against Phlebotomus papatasi: A Potential Plant-Based Approach for Vector Control. J Arthropod Borne Dis. 2026;.
